Abstract:
Thirty-nine Information Professionals, who possess an MLS or equivalent degree from various institutions, were interviewed for their responses in three areas: the state of their current field, the nature and perceived quality of their own graduate education, and recommendations for current library and information studies graduate programs. The sample included some librarians in traditional academic or public libraries, but most operated in non-library settings. Major themes that emerged from the interviews include: Information Technology, Analytic skills, Human Focus, Management and Applied E conomics, and the Organization of Information. The single most important facet of the professional life of the respondents was their attention to user's needs - the human factors behind the information needs of their clients/users. This was true whether the tasks were software design or assisting end users. The organization of information was another major theme and was seen as a key part of the information problem that defines the profession. The professionals felt that their graduate study prepared th em well for their careers, even when their work took them outside the traditional sphere of libraries.
This study has concentrated on holders of MLS (Master of Library Science, or most recently at the University of California at Berkeley (UCB), the MLIS, or Master of Library and Information Studies) degrees working outside of traditional libraries for tw o reasons: the needs and current status of many of these non-traditional positions are not easily studied since their range is so broad and occasionally amorphous, and these areas are not within the normal network of library associations (such as CARL [Ca lifornia Academic and Research Librarians], CLA [California Library Association] and ALA) and thus more difficult to contact for information. Many were selected because of their unusual jobs, or their involvement in non-library settings or the private sec tor, very often a different profile from those professionals active in ALA, CLA or the UC Berkeley Alumni Association. (Some respondents, although their present job description places them in a traditional library setting, have had unusual employment expe riences previous to their current situation.)
Interviews were left very open-ended, with the participants urged to describe their own perspectives on their fields, their training and their hopes for the new school. The survey assumed the form of three large question areas that can be summarized as follows:
What was your graduate education like? What courses or areas of study were helpful, and which were not? Was your education sufficient for your present work?
What would you like to see in the curriculum and focus of the new SIMS? How could the new school address the particular needs of your own field? What do you see as the characteristics and skills required of the people you hire, and of future informatio n professionals?
Respondents were in agreement in several areas, which in itself is somewhat surprising given the wide ranging tasks and job descriptions represented in the sample. Technology and the organization of information were mentioned by nearly all respondents a s central issues in their work. The single greatest factor that set these graduates apart from their colleagues who did not possess a library degree was their attention to human factors in locating, ordering and delivering information. This "human focus " allowed them to be a unique and vital part of their organization, and was seen as a key component of the profession.
There was less agreement on other fronts, and the nature of the profession itself is an area of considerable controversy. At one extreme, libraries and librarians were seen as an indispensable part of the profession, at the other, that the profession co uld exist quite apart from any study of libraries, and that modern information skills were more closely akin to the kinds of study done in computer science departments. However much the second perspective departed from the traditional view, all of those who held it mentioned several aspects of traditional library training that were necessary for their work: the factors connected with the logical ordering of information and understanding of the people who would be seeking the information, with considerati on to their needs and nature. Thus the kind of fundamental thinking done in past "library school" programs was seen to have considerable application in current information issues. Finally, all agreed on the value of having graduates be intellectually cu rious, with wide-ranging interests, and fortified with excellent communications skills, both of the written and spoken word.
Respondents felt that their education in Library and Information Studies (LIS) was unique because of the interdisciplinary nature of their studies. They learned to wield the tools of their trade, but also needed to possess an understanding of the unique aspects of the profession and the needs of their patrons. Many saw their work as two-sided: using technological tools to organize or locate information, and interacting with other humans, those who need the information.
Besides those involved in creation, a large number of graduates are sophisticated users of information technology, and are often intimately knowledgeable of the workings of searching mechanisms and database structure. These professionals are often resea rchers who use information technology to sift through various kinds of data to provide the information necessary for their organization or clients. Others must be able to search a range of databases to stay current in their field. Very many are extremel y sophisticated in their abilities to locate information by constructing and submitting complicated queries with precise language to the appropriate database. Databases indeed are the backbone of much of the technology used by these professionals. Some are archivists concerned with the storage and preservation of information, complying with an ever changing s et of rules and regulations. Many are also charged by their organization to kept abreast of developments in their field as reflected in the Internet.
Many of the respondents are valued by their organization for the currency of their technical training. They are often given the task, for example, of launching their organization's web page, even when non-library colleagues with greater familiarity with programming are available. The LIS graduate often is perceived as someone who has a useful perspective on the end-users' needs and a broad-based perspective of how the information ought to be organized and presented. Their extreme sensitivity to the tar get audience combined with extensive familiarity with the range of information technology available allow them a critical faculty which increases the utility of the final product or service.
Recent graduates are often valued as "new hires" precisely because of the currency of their technological knowledge. At UC Berkeley's LIS, students had the opportunity to work with the leading edges of information technology (particularly with database design, networking issues, image databases, and searching mechanisms) and this was seen to pay dividends in two ways. First, an organization could "upgrade" its understanding and use of a particular information technology by including the new graduate in its process. Very many of the professionals in the sample are involved in teaching their colleagues and clients how to use information technology. Secondly, these professionals are often valued as "quick learners" who will continue to stay abreast of technological developments and make use of the independence developed during their graduate studies to maintain currency. Courses often mentioned as particularly helpful to graduates were those connected with database design, networking issues, image databases and programming.
Many of those interviewed mentioned the need to be able to learn new applications and software easily and confidently. Administrators and managers all stressed the desirability of a newly hired employee who could learn quickly. Technological change is relentless and rapid, and whilethere was some sense that no one could possibly master all applications, there was agreement that flexibility and a wide-ranging familiarity were essential. The changing face of technology was the single greatest reason th at many mentioned the need for continuing education at graduate programs. Many expressed considerable fear, at times almost reaching panic, of their inability to stay current with technological advances. It was rare to find a respondent who did not ment ion classes in databases or networking in their list of courses to be included in the new school.
The director of a large technologically advanced public library system thought that graduate education should provide an opportunity for students to "experiment" with the latest possible technological advances, no matter what they were. This sort of expe rimentation would lead to an independence and an open, inquisitive stance which could be very helpful when technological changes are so great. By having students approach entirely new technology, groundwork would be laid for them in the field where they will be beset by the rapid encroachment of even newer advances. The closer students are to the creation point of a -technological innovation, the more likely that they will have an understanding and appreciation for the issues and problems inherent in such new technology. This perspective will then help them in the field where they may very well be implemen ting something entirely new for their organization. While many respondents made concrete suggestions on course content, (HTML and other mark-up languages, networking issues, etc.) others maintained that students have courses that foster consideration of the concepts and theory behind the various technologies.
Several respondents felt that there was a need for more graduates to be responsible for the creation of DBMS (database management systems) rather than just be experienced users of those systems. One Information Manager at a national laboratory felt that while the "computer people" had been calling the shots for a very long time in the database world, it was time for library people, who understand some of the human aspects of information technology, to step up and be part of the design of databases. One Vice President of a company producing a series of databases noted that programming itself is not necessary, but knowledge of the technology is essential.
A focus of many graduates is upon "front end" software or interfaces to databases or searching mechanisms. There is broad agreement that not all databases are easily searched, and while many graduates have grown exceedingly proficient in online searchin g, there is a consensus that there should be systems that are not so difficult to search as DIALOG, and that users benefit from easier and friendlier searching methods. These front ends need to be tailored to the particular user's world view. The manage r of a research laboratory noted that users fall into different categories, and that visually oriented people are more comfortable with graphics, geographically oriented people with spatial orientations, word people with text and systems people with applications. There is an extraordinary opportunity at the moment to revise the mechanisms that DBMS use to order and d isplay information. Front end design is one way to reflect the great diversity of world views present among users.
While "information" as a concept is a part of all LIS education, exactly what is meant by the term in the field continues to be divergent depending on the specific area of activity. All agree that they are involved in a field connected with the locating , organization, and use of information. Many administrators insisted that graduates have a clear understanding of all three areas of the field as entry level professionals.
Graduates are involved in a wide range of information organization activities. Some are archivists or record managers, who must comply with strict rules about the storage and availability of records of varying descriptions. Others must keep their own or ganization's library or set of records in order and in an arrangement useful to those who will need its information. Others are in the process of creating new standards for media not covered well by previous kinds of classification, such as gopher files and information available at a web site. Many of those in this area, often called "heterogeneous distributed information" have to grapple with monumental issues of organization, and have little in the way of classification precedent to guide them. Sever al graduates are working with digital images, where the indexing presents unusually divergent problems (index by author, title, color, subjector format?) For many of those engaged in this sort of organizing, the determining factors that shape the final structure have to do with the twin areas of available technology and the needs of the users.
Some graduates are concerned with the structure of the data within the database, others with the interface that will allow a user to most easily search the database. All of these graduates stressed the need for thorough theoretical training in the many aspects of information organization. One graduate who works as a database administrator in a large high-tech firm, 10% of whose workforce possess a MLIS degree, feels that cataloging is essential, since one must think about how the collection is to be use d.
As an additional component of the organization of information, some knowledge of the subject area at hand is valuable. More than one respondent indicated that their knowledge of a subject area gave them particular value to their organization, since they were in a position to evaluate the data critically both as to content and to importance. One of the members of the Museum Informatics Project at UCB noted that those with subject expertise would be better able to order the "data sets" when they were arme d with a sense of the history of the set. Knowing its traditions, and how others were likely to use it, made their ordering of it a superior endeavor.
Many graduates have as part of their job description the enormous task of organizing "heterogeneous distributed information", such as that located on the Internet. This is usually an electronic format, generally a gopher or web site, and truly represents a daunting task. Unlike library bibliographic collections which have standards, the re is little in this new world, and many have had to create standards as they go along. One graduate who had worked on gopher sites for the U.S. Department of Agriculture cited the enormity of the task and the ground-breaking nature of the endeavor. She has worked to try to make more uniform the authorship assigned to electronic information sources, which tend to be poorly documented. Part of this involves creating standards for the electronic format. Graduates are valued for their sense of the nature of the organizing efforts. One graduate at a Medical software company cited three key aspects of organization: Technical aspects, Artistic aspects and Content. Those involved in the organization efforts must be conversant with all three areas. There mu st be an understanding of the technical parts of the information, how the database is constructed, and its limitations and abilities. There must be a sense of how the information looks as it is displayed, through whatever medium, and the content must be suitable to meet the needs of those who will be using it.
These graduates did not all mention cataloging by name, but all stressed the need for knowing various classification systems and different ways of arranging materials. One academic library director felt that in the world of the Internet, library structu res are infinitely applicable. Although few of the graduates were involved directly in anything resembling traditional library cataloging, 25% of them specifically mentioned cataloging as being a necessary part of the new school. If one includes those wh o recommended courses that dealt with organizing information but had a much more expanded base than traditional cataloging (including multimedia and images, other non-standard files), the percentage becomes considerably higher.
There is a general sense that the structure of the information is a key aspect of its utility to the user. Structure is seen as having a high place in the attempt to locate information, and requires a careful understanding. Among the most common reques ts for specific courses in the new school, particularly from graduates with degrees over five years previous, were ones for the study of the structure of databases.
Many of the technological skills involving information have been mentioned in the section on information technology. Graduates need to be aware both of the technical "nuts and bolts" issues of programming and software design as well as some of the theor etical concerns inherent in database structure and software creation.
The attention to the information user was the one feature identified by a majority of respondents as the quality that set their LIS training apart from other related graduate programs, and what made their contributions in their own field of work unique. Many respondents work in very technologically advanced arenas, including companies like Silicon Graphics and Westlaw, which are heavily populated with Computer Science graduates. Often the Programmer/Analyst people possess considerably more sophisticate d knowledge in the ways of designing and revising code, constructing front end software and implementing databases, but the LIS people are an invaluable part of the finished product. The reasons for this are twofold:
First, LIS graduates are extremely cognizant of the needs of the persons who will be using the system. In a given subject area, the LIS graduate is often the one who either contributes directly to the design of the front-end aspect of the database (or i s involved with the organization of the database itself) or at least is consulted in the test phase of the finished product. They are valued for their insight about the needs of the persons who will be doing the searching, and to properly do this, a grea t deal of sensitivity to user needs is necessary. What will the searcher be looking for? How is the searcher likely to pose the query? What is the most usable format for the display? Will the user want to be able to link to related documents? What is an intuitive arrangement to the information? How will it look to the user? All of these questions are very much the province of the LIS graduate, and frequently do not have the same importance for the Programmer/Analysts who create the databases and se arching mechanisms.
Often LIS graduates are assigned a part in the "debugging" of a system. Because of their experience with a variety of systems and their extreme sensitivity to the needs of the probable user, they are able to locate potential stumbling blocks or uneven p athways in newly created software. They are often given the latest version of the test software to give it a trial run. This allows them the opportunity to advocate the user's needs for simplicity and clear organization to those who create the product. Often LIS graduates are sophisticated searchers who are well aware of the ways that the target users are likely to use the system, and so are able to identify non-intuitive areas of the software and ways to streamline or clarify the process.
For this reason a number of respondents thought cataloging a valuable aspect of their training, since it forced them, sometimes for the first time, to consider the anonymous searcher's requirements for a collection. How a collection or group of informat ion was arranged had a great deal to do with its utility, and while there were other aspects of cataloging that were useful, this concern for the use of the collection was an important part for many. Several respondents were adamant that cataloging be a much broader kind of course than it is at present, with concerns for a wide array of formats and materials, and that the bibliographic MARC format did not have universal applicability to all kinds of information.
In addition, training for the traditional reference interview, in the sense that it serves to determine what the needs of the customer/patron/user are, is seen as another fundamental skill. Consulting with a patron or user to determine the specific natu re of the information need is often a major part of the graduates' tasks, whether the user is a well-trained researcher, a corporate client or the potential user of a new kind of software. One library museum director noted that patrons must be given the capacity to ask their own questions and seek their own answers.
The other aspect of the human focus that was seen by a large number of respondents as part of their vital contribution to their field was their ability to communicate clearly and effectively with their colleagues/superiors and/or their customers/users. In this sense they again had a much appreciated advantage over their often more technically proficient Programmer/Analyst colleagues. LIS graduates were often able to speak more clearly, with less jargon, about a particular technological issue, and offer a larger perspective regarding whether the proposed service actually met the needs of the persons who would be using it. At board meetings, several respondents felt that they occupied an intermediary position between the "techies" who made a particular system work, and their superiors or other specialists not conversant with technological issues and that they often served as translators between the two groups. More than one respondent expressed the need to be able to argue effectively with the "techie" group and thus needed good technical knowledge to support their position. They frequently served to translate technical terms into the user's concerns and language. It appears that a wide-ranging background helps the LIS graduate to retain his or her f ocus on human needs, and respect the nature of a variety of users. A corollary to this aspect of the human focus touches upon the profession itself, which is that many grads felt the continuing need to justify their utility, purpose and proper place in th eir field, and that the value of their work was not often intuitively obvious to their superiors.
Another aspect of many graduates' work that has become increasingly important is the instruction of information technology to clients, colleagues, and users. While librarians have often needed to do some explication of library organizational methods and retrieval mechanisms, the explosive growth of electronic resources has made it necessary for many of these information professionals, in both private and public sectors, to educate others in the use of information technology. This education covers a var iety of forms, from presentations requiring good oral skills, to one-on-one instruction with a client or user, to designing help screens or online manuals in a networked environment. All of these facets of instruction demand clarity, simplicity and sensi tivity to the user.
The amphibious nature of the profession, wherein graduates were often at home in both technical waters and the land of the common person, has a two-fold function. One function was in translation, passing on large picture issues to those technically capa ble of writing the application or programming code. Another was as an advocate, making sure that user's needs were presented early in the creation of the database or interface, and that the final product would fit the user's requirements. The need for f amiliarity with both worlds was important to make the connections necessary: without technical understanding the professionals ran the risk of losing credibility with their superiors and those charged with the technical creation. Yet their obsession with the final goal, the use of the information presented to a particular audience with particular needs, demands that they be extremely aware of the people who will be using the information.
Excellent communication skills were mentioned by a large number of respondents, with a range of forums from clear written prose, creation of concise handouts or instructional materials or documentation, to confident speaking style with good attention to "packaging" a demonstration or presentation. Many LIS graduates performed as editors in one capacity or another in their work, and their versatility with the language was clearly an asset. One response to the potential curriculum of the new school from a librarian at a computer company was " Lots of writing!" Many were concerned that students receive enough opportunities to hone their communication skills through the use of oral and written projects.
One analytic component that many respondents mentioned as one of the most valuable courses at a LIS program was Systems Analysis, even if it did not deal with sophisticated technical issues, but involved theory regarding the passage of information throu gh a system to a user. This sort of course usually necessitated a "big-picture" approach that is very helpful in the field. Many mentioned the particular technological considerations of a networked environment and networked information, but many also st ressed the need to know how to test and evaluate a system in place. Remembering the needs of the user, which are often not identical to the concerns of the creator or implementor of the system/service, is a dominant theme of most LIS graduate's lives. O ne lab manager commented that "technology needs an emphasis on the people who will be using it."
The need to "package" information by means of clearly organized, well integrated reports is also a large theme. Many felt that the ability to conduct primary research was vital, if for no other reason than to understand the needs of the particular users in question. In other words, many graduates did not have research listed in their job descriptions, but were required to assist other researchers in their organization.
Many found the broad perspective they possessed to have been furthered in their graduate program, where classes frequently included students with a diverse set of interests and experiences. The range of interests and needs present made for a more comple te critical examination of the information resources. The variety of interests were united in the theoretical concerns inherent in information systems in all manners of libraries, corporate settings or specialized databases.
Many of the respondents made use of their expertise in a particular subject area, often that of their undergraduate studies. A number of respondents also possessed a graduate degree in another area besides library and information studies, which often wa s invaluable in their work. Archivists often possessed a history degree, those who worked in publishing houses often had journalism or English degrees and two respondents, who are directors of large programs, possessed MBA degrees. Another kind of speci alization included a system, such as a computer operating system like UNIX, or a database such as dBase.
Many respondents stressed that having extensive intellectual interests was immensely helpful in their work, since they were often able to understand the needs of basic research in a variety of subject areas. But, as mentioned previously, many also felt the need for some sort of specialization, particularly as databases grew more easily accessible and opened wider the doors to electronic research. These were not necessarily seen as contradictory; the need was for both a renaissance person's broad perspe ctive and experience as well as for some in-depth knowledge in an area or system. Retaining a diversity of students in the new SIMS was one way that many respondents saw as addressing this concern, since students were exposed to different interests and r esearching needs, and could further both subject awareness in a variety of general areas and also expand their own subject expertise.
While some of the advantages of LIS graduates over Computer Science (CS) graduates have been mentioned in terms of the human skills section, another emerges along the themes present in analytic skills. One director of the automation department of a larg e law office, notes that librarians are much more capable than their more technically oriented colleagues in their ability to manage multiple tasks, multiple deadlines and multiple priorities. This observation hints at the value of the broad perspective that is part of LIS training. Another observation from a graduate who works at an automated resume service is that many highly technically trained individuals there (mostly Programmer/Analysts) lack broad interests and the ability to analyze and synthes ize data in a broader context. For example, in her own tasks there is a need to be able to decide which fields are the most useful ones for the customer, which cannot be done without a broad interest base and a fair amount of familiarity with indexing is sues.
The management of information itself is a rather large topic and includes notions of the economics of information: worth of information, useful means of valuing information, cost analysis and time issues. Many graduates felt particularly unprepared for the economic issues that greeted them in the field. Budgetary matters were a major concern and frequently professionals needed not only to plan a budget but justify it to their superiors and the rest of the organization. Many stressed the need to know "how to get things done" in their organization and the best ways to navigate the hierarchy and pathways of power. The director of automation in a law library noted that "it is a real challenge to deliver cost effective information." Also included are no tions of information as a commodity, how information should be used in public and private sectors, and what areas require universal access versus a more proprietary status.
The needs in the area of management differed between those working in libraries and similar organizations and those in the private sector. For-profit organizations often needed muchmore careful scrutiny of the economics of a given project, sometimes req uiring a systematic method of pricing information. Libraries tended to have a wider range of users and economic attention was apt to be more attuned to public service staffing, and the collection's need for preservation and organization. All respondent s had experienced the economic squeeze of recent years and often have had to cope by means of increased efficiency or reduced service. This economic stress called for inventive strategies which brought home the realization that knowing the management iss ues present in the profession was a necessary part of their work. In both areas of the management world, respondents felt increasing need to demonstrate their own or their unit's contribution to larger organizational goals.
Generally those with more recent degrees felt better about the utility of their management education. A large number of respondents felt that libraries and similar structures had a variety of problems peculiar to their field, and thus required a kind of specialized training. Those in the private sector frequently encountered different sorts of management issues, often associated with economic factors or the need to market their projects to the organization Frequent recommendations from both groups inc luded some study of current theories regarding organizational hierarchy and process of action, as well as case studies illustrating particular issues, with a strong dose of practice working with budgets and running a project. Several graduates thought th at their MLIS would combine well with an MBA, and in fact two of those interviewed possessed an MBA degree.
Some of these issues are particularly evident in special libraries and some of the private sector positions. Frequently a graduate in a small organization was the sole information professional and often felt somewhat isolated when communicating with oth ers in the organization. Graduates often were put in the position of supervising a staff, and often felt unprepared. In general, there was a sense that management training at the very least needed expansion in the new school, with greater attention both to overall theory as well as increased practical endeavors, such as running projects, developing budgets, preparing reports and presentations.
One particular area that many respondents need to address in their work that would seem a useful addition to future management training is the process of writing and administering a grant. Grants were part of funding for a variety of organizations, fro m museum libraries to national laboratories, and while the current climate is not a flush one for grant proposals, they will continue to be an important part of life for many information professionals.
Discussion of the nature of the profession generated enormous and passionate speeches. A great many felt the profession of librarian to be at a cross-roads and the danger of dissolution, dissipation or evaporation to be extremely great. Others frankly could not care less about librarianship as a profession, and merely wanted the new school to continue to offer solid technical and theoretical training in the field of information, its use and place in the world. The division was not complete, and many r ealized the need to reevaluate the profession and modify its mission and methods, yet at the same time maintaining ties with the historical growth of librarianship as a unique calling. Others, like an administrator at a database company, felt that the pro fession not only needed revamping, but needed a new name to reflect the changes of the last decade. Some graduates had the phrase "knowledge engineer" on their business card or in their job description, with the sense that their methods were far removed and more technically developed than those of a "mere" librarian.
Along the same lines, many felt that any historical view of libraries or librarians was wasted study, while others felt the need to be able to place the profession within a larger context, as it assisted their own presentation of the peculiar themes of t he profession to their superiors or the public. Having the ability to point to other periods of rapid technological change, with the onset of printing or the mechanical innovations of the industrial revolution, often made their explanations of informatio n technology issues to superiors or clients an easier task.
Many tightly ensconced in a library also felt the need to reevaluate the profession, however, and cited the overwhelming need to try to stay current with technological innovations. One library director felt that by turning their backs to the profession o f librarianship (by "broadening" its mission), graduate programs would be betraying the roots of education, which he saw as necessarily involving libraries and librarians in a central role.
The singular nature of the Internet and other distributed information systems was felt by many to be a call for increased excellence from LIS graduates, who now have the enormous mission of organizing and making intelligible the opened floodgates of info rmation of every variety. Once again, the human focus of the profession was felt to be an asset when developing organizational schemes to accommodate the cacophony. Ironically, despite the stated distance from some of the "knowledge engineers" to the pr ofession, they often expressed appreciation for the kinds of thinking developed in even their introductory cataloging class in a LIS. A senior member at the Center for Networked Information remarked that although she never did any cataloging and very muc h disliked learning it, her cataloging class was probably the single most important class in her graduate training. A cataloging class in a LIS is apt to be the moment when students first put information technology, awareness of the user and understandin g of the collection's structure all together and become aware of the peculiar needs of the confluence.
Many of those involved in the organization of information in distributed networks are ground-breakers. One graduate was involved with the arrangement of the gopher files distributed by the USDA. Here the structure and layout of the material had a great deal to do with its utility, and a chaotic or unorganized distribution would severely hamper the ability of many users to find what they needed. This is another area where there is often a wide gulf of understanding between administrators' notions of wh at is possible and those of the people who implement the projects. LIS graduates are likely to operate in an intermediary position, often overseeing the final "look and feel" of the finished product. Many graduates are put in the position of editors for not only written aspects of the organization, but the way that information is displayed or presented. This kind of activity is apt to incorporate much of the LIS graduates' high level of traditional literacy and attention to the language. These traditi onal skills and focus are highly valued in high-tech arenas, where they can be effectively overlaid on top of current systems. Very many of the graduates were involved in some aspect of publishing, whether in electronic or print format, and often possess ed an editorial component to their work. For example, one respondent at a publishing house functions mostly as a researcher and reference source for the published works, but also writes introductions and oversees the completeness and accuracy of the fini shed product. One archivist summed up the profession by noting that it possessed an "intellectual vision combining tools and people."
Justification for their work is a continual issue for many professionals, regardless of the place of their work or whether it is private sector or not. There is a tendency for many administrators to try to imagine that increased technology will make muc h work presently done by humans unnecessary. LIS graduates know that this may be true to a limited extent, but feel the pressure from above towards disintermediation, when they realize that their place is truly in the middle and their mission cannot be a ccomplished easily without human skills.
Many respondents felt the need for clarification of the profession, but no simple answers were forthcoming. However, many questions emerged, among them a list from the director of a special library: "Where are we going? Why are we in this field? What is the history of the profession? How are we different from other programs?" Some, like one museum library director, despaired of ever being able to locate all aspects of the information profession under one roof, but noted that the profession had a long and honorable past as offering "supreme public service."
The interdisciplinary nature of the profession was implied continually, with one graduate explaining it very well. This computer lab director noted that he was sure that social science departments were addressing the issues surrounding information's imp act in society and how it fits into a social matrix. Computer scientists were also working very hard at improving searching and organizing methods. Business schools were analyzing the cost of information and how expensive network traffic is, but that th e real value of a program like SIMS would be that its mission existed at the intersection of all these other disciplines. Its graduates would need to be comfortable in other areas and aware of the wide range of problems, achievements, and themes present in these related departments.
Following the themes listed in this study, the "minimum requirements" of current graduates include: information technological competence, understanding of the organization of information, excellent human and analytic skills, with a working understanding of the management issues likely to be present in the field. The level of expertise necessary depended largely on the particular area of the work; those creating software needed considerably more understanding of programming code than an archivist. Those arranging any kind of collection required good classification education.
The perfect graduate will be extremely independent, motivated, confident and able to learn quickly and independently while remaining a team player who works collaboratively. Very frequent comments went something like this: "I had to learn a tremendous amount on the job when I was first hired, there was little training offered and I needed to be extremely flexible and well motivated." Graduates are generally expected to be self-starters and very fast learners, and frequently in the private sector inhab it their own fiefdom within an organization, often making up the rules as they go along.
One administrator wished for those graduates who can think independently, be open-ended in their studies and exposed to wide-ranging discussions. Analytic processes must be systematic and rigorous, and good "follow-through" with projects with attention to detail is vital. Graduates should possess a wide perspective that does not lose sight of what various respondents saw as the essential mission of the profession. With some variations as to focus, this was seen to be the ordering and collection of in formation with attention to its retrieval, and the assistance to those in search of it. One Library Director noted that graduates needed "the ability to answer questions", another that graduates need to be able to "locate information."
One Library Director wondered about the standards of the new school: what will graduates know? Certain more traditional areas, such as archiving, require good understanding of standards, but even more loosely structured and even chaotic environments (web page construction) find value in good organization and an understanding of the structure of the material in question.
Many respondents felt that the profession and the themes of information in society were well served by the exchange of different perspectives, interests, ethnic and cultural views present in a good LIS program. Some felt that more programs should be more academically oriented, perhaps with a thesis as a requirement.
One feature of the human focus that is not immediately obvious is that the LIS graduate must usually be more than casually familiar with the particular specialty of information in their field. Many grads made use of prior training in developing their ca reers, but just as often graduates were able to make use of their broad interests to find workable niches for pursuing their careers. At LIS programs, many graduates expressed satisfaction with the wide variety of interests present in their fellow studen ts. Having a cataloging class that included members who had worked in law libraries and medical libraries, or who were linguists or English majors made for a lively and productive mixture that served to heighten the attention being offered to the user. This range was thought to be invaluable to the shape of the new program, and several hoped that a balance of interests would be preserved and would result in a real asset to the profession. Several respondents felt that the new school had an obligation, b oth to potential students and to the profession as a whole, to include members of a wide range of social and economic backgrounds, which have been traditional sources of strength for the librarian profession.
A frequent comment was that their fellow students were generally bright, motivated, collaborative, inquisitive people, and that discussion in their classes was energetic, provocative and of tremendous value to their training. The great general questions that emerged, and which were dissected and debated endlessly, generated an understan ding that served them well in the field. Some of these questions, for example those concerning the best way to elicit and define the true "information need" expressed in a reference interview, appear to be at the core of both librarianship in its traditi onal guise, and any of the more current designations of the profession. A digital library specialist noted the need to "negotiate with a user to establish a usable search." Those designing searching mechanisms still need to consider how users are likely to frame their questions and what aspects of their questions are most likely to form useful information to apply to the query.
Some specific recommendations included: launching a high quality journal, making explicit connections with other departments on campus to tap into the information needs present in various disciplines, and establishing some sort of continuing education wh ereby graduates could further their education.
An understanding of the needs of those who need information is one of the key qualities that separate LIS graduates from others who make information technology part of their activity. By recognizing both the broad and specific issues present in a user's quest for information, many graduates are able to design, arrange, or otherwise facilitate the retrieval of information in a given setting. Sensitivity to the user is vital in the design of systems, in arranging the data, providing a structure in a data base, and in providing a front-end interface that is easy to use and intuitive. Instruction in the use of information technology also demands that the graduate possess this sensitivity, which permits effective communication of the concepts and specific s teps involved in an information search. This sensitivity is best combined with sound technological understanding, which permit the kind of amphibious ease of travel between technical waters and the lands of the users.
The huge majority of LIS graduates are involved in intermediary functions. Even if their task seems mostly technical in nature (designing a web page, improving a searching mechanism) their attention is aimed at those who will be using the system. In th e private sector, they often occupy a position between those with extreme technical expertise and those with administrative concerns. Their well-honed communications skills and understanding of both technical and human issues permit them a compelling voi ce when designing a new system, a better service or expanded range of research. Their role involves bridging disparate areas, where their broad-based education and perspective allow a leadership role in the arena of information technology.
The organization of information, traditionally a central aspect of the library world, in fact occupies an essential place in any discussion of the notion of information in a contemporary setting. Information that cannot be found because of poor arrangem ent or a difficult searching mechanism is information that cannot be used. The explosive growth of electronic information systems accentuates the difficulties of sound organizational practice. A large number of graduates interviewed are attempting to c ope with some of these difficulties, and they largely report that their education in classification, cataloging, and the theory of organizing information is absolutely essential to their work. This is an area where graduates possess a leadership role in the establishment of standards and clarity in information systems.
Management issues are playing an increasing role for many graduates, particularly those in the private sector. Issues connected with the economics of information, an understanding of how projects may best be funded and conducted, and ability to harness human and technical resources are all important parts of most graduates' lives.
While the course of the future often defies easy prediction, the role of the information professional, for lack of a better term, will likely have a large impact on a great segment of our society. While the Internet and other electronic systems are capa ble of disseminating greater and greater volumes of information to increasing numbers of people, the difficulty of matching users with their sought items becomes greater. Information professionals are capable of addressing this extremely complicated diff iculty in a unique manner, due to their understanding of two separate parts of the problem -- the technical areas of information collection and the nature of human curiosity. Without abandoning the traditional strengths of the profession of librarianship : literacy, service ethic, and organization, the modern professional must expand on the technical skills of the past and it is important that these professionals be increasingly part of the construction of the tools of the information trade. This can take place at the level of information structure, in the development of library catalogs and other databases, in the design of searching mechanisms, and in the look and feel of intuitive, well defined front-end software. By attending to the dual areas of te chnical development and human orientation, with attention to the organization of information and the identity of the profession, a good graduate program has an opportunity to provide a vital aspect of modern literacy and contribute to the quality of life for our world.