Allegory:
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a sustained metaphor; a metaphor projected
onto the metonymic axis. A parallel narrative, one narrative
superimposed
on another.
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Connotation/ Denotation:
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a denotation is the most fundamental, most
direct and immediate ‘meaning’ of a signifier (e.g., a word, an image
or a sound). A connotation, or connotations are the associated meanings
derived from
the denotation. So for example, an image of an apple denotes the fruit
itself. The apple, however, has many connotations:
1. it refers to the ‘tree of knowledge in the Garden
of Eden’
2. it refers to the so-called ‘fall of man’ when Eve gave the apple to
Adam
3. it generally refers to knowledge, again, relating to the Book of
Genesis: “And when the woman saw that the tree was good for food, and
that it was
pleasant to the eyes, and a tree to be desired to make one wise, she
took
of the fruit thereof, and did eat, and gave also unto her husband with
her;
and he did eat.” (Genesis 3:6)
4. we might even extend this further, Apple, is a well known brand of
computers; no doubt the brand name is related to the Biblical
connotations.
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Exchange-value:
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“The ‘form’ of value in which abstract labor
(not
usually perceptible per se) shows itself to economic actors. Abstract
labor
appears not in itself, but as the product’s value in relation to other
products
– as the product’s value in exchange. Each of the three principle
value-forms
– commodities, money, and capital – thus manifests ‘exchange-value.’”1
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Langue:
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“is French for “language” or “tongue” and is
used by Ferdinand de Saussure in his A Course on General Linguistics to
denote the entire system of a language, its rules of combination and
its system of differentiations.”2 (Also see parole).
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Lexeme:
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basic unit of discourse; a language.
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Metaphor:
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a comparison, a substitution, a replacement of
one thing for another. For example, when Robert Burn’s says, “My love
is a red, red rose.” His love – the object of his affection – is not in
fact a red, red rose but a person, presumably a woman.
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Metonym:
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similar to metaphor, where something is compared
through an association usually one of physicality, and/or proximity. So
we might say, "the crown," to refer to Queen Elizabeth, or the
monarchy. We might say, "the White House," to refer to the
administration of the executive branch. Although not entirely accurate,
metonym is sometimes referred to as a part representing a whole;
technically this is a synedoche. Synedoche, however, might be
considered one type of metonym.
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Moneme:
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a minimal unit, a basic unit; so this might be
comparable to a single ‘word.’
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Paradigm:
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“designates a set of linguistic or
other units [e.g., visual images] that can be substituted for each
other in the same position within a sequence. For instance, all words
with the same grammatical function may constitute a paradigm, since
replacing one with
another has no effect on the syntax of a particular utterance. In the
sentence,
“My dog is savage,” the noun “dog” may be replaced by the noun “piano”
without
changing the sentence’s syntax in the least.”3
In the example of ‘pure cinema’ given by Alfred Hitchcock, he provides
an example where three shots in succession generates meaning. In the
first example, Hitchcock is figured as a ‘kind gentleman.’ In the
second
example, Hitchcock is figured as a ‘dirty old man.’
example 1.
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'kind gentleman'
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example 2
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'dirty old man'
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This shift from ‘kind gentleman’ to ‘dirty old man,’ could be
characterized as a paradigm shift. This sequence is like the sentence
“My dog is savage,”
in two ways:
1. there is a replacement of ‘units’
2. the syntax hasn’t been changed.
The conventions of cinematic syntax demand that these shots been
ordered in this way. For example, it would make no sense to say, “My
savage is dog.” Standard syntax demands that the sentence should read:
"My dog is savage." The same generally holds true of the conventions of
cinematic
syntax. This ‘cinematic syntax’ (or a string of shots) might be
referred to as syntagm
(see syntagm). To use the Hitchcock example again, if we reorder the
shots in a way that doesn't necessarily conform to 'typical' cinematic
syntax the meaning of the sequence is not clear.
example 3.
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unclear meaning
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Typically the paradigm and syntagm are illustrated in the form or an
axis. The paradigmatic axis runs vertically, while the syntagmatic axis
runs horizontally.
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Parole:
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“refers to a particular utterance within” a
specific system (i.e., langue). “For Saussure, it is the langue that
makes all individual utternances possible. Thus, he argued, the
appropriate study
of linguistics is not specific utterances but the system out of which
they emerge.”4
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Phoneme:
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in terms of linguistics is the minimal unit of
speech; in a broader sense it might the basic audio or visual unit.
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Seme (or Semic Code):
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a basic connotative unit. See “connotation.”
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Sememe:
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basic unit of meaning.
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Semiotics (also Semiology):
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The study of signs, and how those signs generate
meaning within a system. Originally founded by the Swiss linguist
Ferdinand de Saussure. Although he died prior to its publication A
Course in
General Linguistics is generally viewed as the ‘official’ handbook
of semiology.
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Structuralism:
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owes much of its existence to semiology and the
work of Ferdinand de Saussure. Structuralism first appears in the 1950s
and 60s, namely in the work of anthropologist Claude
Lévi-Strauss, and the cultural critic Roland Barthes. One of the
fundamental assumptions of Structuralism is that all human activity is
a historical construct, and not the product of nature. In general
Structuralism is concerned with the identification of systems that
generate meaning. Christian Metz applies Structuralism to cinematic
studies: attempting to identify the codes of cinema, and how those
codes generate meaning.
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Sign:
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the basic unit of semiotics which is arbitrary
and unmotivated. The sign is composed of two parts: 1) the signifier,
and 2) the signified (see signifier and signified). Because signs are
arbitrary and unmotivated, this means that there is always a
possibility of slippage of signifieds; in other words, signifiers and
signifieds are not locked together. For example, during the course of
speech, when I utter the word “I,” the signifier is meant to identify
me (Aaron-ness), however, when you, or anyone else utters “I” the
signified changes, slips, and comes to signify who ever utters “I.”
Likewise a sign can become a signifier. For example, ‘wine,’ taken by
itself signifies the alcoholic beverage distilled from grapes. However,
‘wine’ can also signify Christ’s blood, as given in Holy Communion.
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Signified:
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a concept or idea. Sometimes abbreviated Sd. A
sign is composed of the signified and the signifier (see signifier).
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Signifier:
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a sound-image. Sometimes abbreviated Sr.
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Syntagm:
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(also see paradigm): refers to a sequential
order of signs which generate meaning. (See the example given under
paradigm).
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Use-Value:
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“The non-exchange usefulness of any give object,
whether a labor product or not. Definable strictly in terms of human
desires.
It matters not whether these needs spring from the stomach or from
imagination.
Denotes both the property of usefulness and the object endowed with
usefulness.”5
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